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32590930 Identifying ethical theories

Ethical theories:

Introduction:

Ethical behavior is that behavior which is morally right and also that behavior which people accept as good behavior, traditionally philosophers came up with theories that help define and determine morally right behavior some of the traditional ethical theories include the virtue theory, the Kantian theory, the Deontological theory and the  Utilitarianism theory, this theories depict morally right behavior and this paper discusses each theory regarding its relevance to the real world and also how these theories can be used to solve problems.

Ethical theories

The Virtue Theory

This theory focuses on the defined rules and laws that govern behavior, this theory lay emphasis on the processes of learning these rules and through this an individual will develop good behavior, individuals will learn through moral education which is acquired when an individuals still young. This theory is one of the oldest normative theories and can be dated back to the work of Plato who emphasized the four virtues which include courage, temperance, wisdom and justice, Plato also identified other important virtues that include generosity, good temper self respect and sincerity, this theory further emphasis on discouraging bad behavior such as injustice, insensitivity, cowardice and vanity.

The virtue theory analysis human behavior guidance regarding proper behavior, it accounts for moral good behavior for example people will learn from religious teachings the guidance of good behavior, the Christians learn from the Bible that one should not kill, one should not steal, you should not steal and many other teachings, this teachings are learnt when one is still young as stated by the virtue theory.

This theory may be used to solve problems in the workplace in that it gives guidelines to what can be termed as good behavior and bad behavior, for example when one is faced with a situation which requires that you give false statement in the workplace, then this guidelines from the virtue theory depict that you should not lie or give false statements because lies are shortlived while the truth will last for ever.

Kantian theory

This theory was developed by Kant Immanuel, this theory states that if an action is inconsistent with a persons status which is to be free and rational then the action is morally wrong, also he stated that an action that further the status of an individual in terms of his or her status of being free and rational then the action is morally right. Therefore according to the Kantian ethical theory an action that promotes an individuals freedom and rationality is morally right and that which tends to deteriorate or undermine his freedom and rationality is morally wrong.

This theory however does not demonstrate what guides moral behavior in our lives today, to some extent this theory guides moral behavior while to large extend it does have a basis of guiding behavior, for example individuals are rational and have the freedom in order to be morally right, a person will act according to his needs and be rational in all that his does which may result to immoral behavior.

This theory however can be used to solve problems in workplaces or in the individual level when faced with certain situations, the individual for example may be faced by a situation whereby he is has financial problems an at the same time he is entrusted with an organizations money, for him to be rational he has to be rational and this theory depicts that he must be rational and also have freedom, therefore the individual will embezzle this funds according to this theory while in the real world this is morally wrong.

Deontological theory

This theory depict that individuals have a duty to refrain from actions that this duty will be determined by the nature of the action itself, therefore individuals should perform their duties regardless of the consequences, individuals have a duty to refrain from bad behavior and the bad behavior will be determined by the nature of the action.

This theory depict real life situations whereby individuals will refrain from bad behavior as a duty they should undertake, when a person is faced with a situation in which he has an option whether to commit a morally wrong action and a morally write action then it is important that the individual realize that his duty is to refrain from bad behavior.

This theory can be applied to a situation in life where a person is faced with the option of doing wrong or right, according to this theory the individual has the duty to refrain from such bad behavior, and the individual should refrain from bad behavior regardless of the consequences of his actions.

Utilitarianism theory:

The Utilitarianism theory was developed by Bentham Jeremy, this theory states that the morally right actions are those that produce most happiness, therefore morally right actions are those actions maximize happiness and at the same time minimize pain, therefore individuals should always choose those actions that maximize their happiness and at the same time reduce pain in the cause of their action.

This theory is consistent with real life situations whereby this theory can be used to solve problem faced by individuals or in the workplace, it states that we must be rational in the actions we undertake, we maximize benefits and at the same time minimize the costs of actions, the benefits give us happiness while costs give us pain, therefore the individual when faced by certain problems whereby he requires to choose which action to undertake then he must analyze the benefits and the costs or consequences of such situations.

In the real world we have rules that govern behavior, when one breach these rules there are sanctions associated with this bad behavior, this sanctions therefore can be viewed as the pain according to this theory, the benefits are the positive sanctions such as rewards given as a result of good behavior or morally right behavior. This theory therefore is relevant in explaining the situation in the real world regarding morally right behavior.

Conclusion:

All the above philosophical theories regarding ethical behavior are relevant in the real world and they can be used to solve situations which individuals face in their day to day life, morally right behavior is that behavior which maximizes happiness and minimizes cost according to the Utilitarianism theory, this view is also supported by theKantian theory which states that morally right behavior is that which promotes rationality and freedom. We also have a duty to refrain from morally wrong behavior as stated by the Deontological theory.

References:

John Mackie (1977) Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong, Penguin publishers, New York

Immanuel Kan (1985) Metaphysics of Morals, Penguin publishers, New York

Stephen Darwall (2002) Consequentialism, Blackwell publishers, Oxford

Samuel Scheffler (1994) A Philosophical Investigation of the Considerations Underlying Rival Moral Conceptions, Oxford University Press, Oxford

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Islamic Political Thought: The Sunnite Theory,The Theory of al-Mawardi

Islamic Political Thought: The Sunnite Theory,The Theory of al-Mawardi

 

Islamic Political Thought

Islamic political thought has developed mainly from practice in actual history which in turn was developed on an ad hoc basis. The main trend has been the provision of legitimacy to whoever was in power. Legitimisation of rule became more prominent from the Umayyad dynasty (661-750) onwards.

Muslim thinkers and men of letters set out to legitimize not only the position of the ruler but also his decrees and his rights to succession.

It was not until the eleventh century that a theory of Islamic political thought was written. This was long after the establishment of the institution of Khilafa in 632 AD.

This in itself throws some light on the small amount of literature on Islamic political thought before the eleventh century and poses the question why did such an attempt to work out a political theory took place at that particular time and not before?

 The Sunnite Political Theory

A brief examination of the main concepts in the writings of three of the most prominent Islamic political thinkers might suggest the reason for the general trend in Islamic political thought. These are:

1. The Ordinances of Government, written by Abu al-Hasan al-Mawardi, an Asharite (d. 1058), a treatise considered to be the first standard account of the political thought of Islam.
2. Al-Siyasa al-Shariyya, and Minhaj al-Sunna al-Nabawiyya, written by Taqi-el-Din Ahmad Ibn Taymiyya, a Hanbalite (d. 1328).
3. Al-Muqaddima, (The Introduction to History), written by ‘Abd al-Rahman Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406).

 The political writings referred to above represent the trend of the Sunnite political thought, and are considered to be the standard theories of Islamic political thought. These three Islamic writers dealt with the institution of the ruler, what was demanded of it, the form which it took and the delegation of authority.

 The theory of al-Mawardi:

Al-Mawardi considered the institution of the Imamate (imam: leader), as an obligation demanded by Shar‘(Arabic: Shari‘a: Islamic legislation). The ruler (Imam) is appointed by the divine will.

The imam is the successor of the Apostle of God. In him all secular and religious powers are vested. He is the one to decide the affairs of the Muslims and his decisions must be obeyed as part of obedience due to God.

 Al-Mawardi writes:

‘God, glory be to His power, assigned to the Umma a chief-leader who is a successor to prophethood. He made him the embracer of Religion, and delegated to him the management of public affairs so that the decisions will be in accordance with the standard Religion, and that a consensus of opinion may be reached to follow the decided decision.

Thus the Imama is the fundamental grounds on which the rules of religion are based, and by which the interests of the Umma are organized, until all public affairs are fixed by it.'1

Accordingly the Imam is an obligation and a necessity for the management of the public affairs of the Muslims. The function of the Imam is to watch over the Shari‘a and to decide issues related to the temporal affairs of the Muslims:

‘The Imama is established to succeed prophethood in guarding religion and managing secular public affairs.'2

Appointing the Imam

 Al-Mawardi explains how the Imam should be elected. This, he writes, is done by those who ‘tie and loose' (Arabic: ahl al ‘aqd: presumably these are the elite of the Muslims, i.e. the notables, those versed in religion matters and those who are thought to be just). The mechanism of selecting the Imam is to create groups, the first group consists of an elite- a handful of Muslims, maybe five in number as when Abu bakr (the first Caliph) was elected- endowed with qualities of justice, knowledge of who is best for the post, wisdom and right opinion to choose the best.

The second group comprises those who are potential Imams. This group must be endowed with the following qualities to be eligible for the post: justice, knowledge of Shari‘a, healthy senses, healthy physique, and the right opinion leading to the management of the interests and affairs of the people, courage and protection and finally kinship with the tribe of Quraysh (the tribe of Prophet Muhammad). 3

 The second way of appointing the Imam is by designation. The future Imam can be elected while his predecessor is still in office. The Imam in Office can designate his successor provided that the newly elected Imam has the right qualities. Two or more successors can be designated by an Imam in office.

 According to Mawardi the representatives of the Muslims (the handful closed circle) must swear allegiance to the newly elected Imams approving thereby of their future governorship. These designated successors are Caliphs (Arabic: successors) to the Imam in office.

 Al-Mawardi explains further the necessity for administrative personnel to execute the decisions of the Imam in managing public affairs, e.g. Vesirs, Emirs as governors of regions and towns, and Emirs as warlords and governors of treasury and alms collecting, also a body of Qudat (Arab: plural of Qadi: judge), to look into and judge in legal matters according to Islamic Shari‘a.

1. Abu al-Hasan al-Mawardi, The ordinances of Government (Cairo: M. Halabi, 1973), p. 3.

2. Ibid., p. 5.

3. Ibid., p. 6.

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